1.
Transcription and it`s types (phonetic,
ordinary)
Transcription (linguistics) —
Transcription is the conversion into written, typewritten or printed form, of a
spoken language source, such as the proceedings of a court hearing. Transcription
in the linguistic sense is the systematic representation of language in written
form. Phonetic transcription (or
phonetic notation) is the visual representation of speech sounds (or phones).
The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet, e.g.,
the International Phonetic Alphabet. One particular form of a broad
transcription is a phonemic transcription, which disregards all allophonic
difference, and, as the name implies, is not really a phonetic transcription at
all, but a representation of phonemic structure. It's common to distinguish between two kinds
of transcription, based on how many details the transcribers decide to
ignore: Narrow transcription: captures
as many aspects of a specific pronunciation as possible and ignores as few
details as possible. Broad transcription
(or phonemic transcription): ignores as many details as possible, capturing
only enough aspects of a pronunciation to show how that word differs from other
words in the language.
2.
Word stress
When the word is stressed a person uses more muscular energy. Syllable
makes more prominent such factors- loudness, length, pitch, quality. The
strongest type of stress – primary.
The type of stress which weaker – the secondary
and unstressed. If the second syllable of the verb contains a long vowel or
diphthong or if it ends with more than one consonant – the second syllable is
stressed(arrive, attract), if the final syllable contains a short vowel and one
final C, the first syllable is stressed(enter, open). A final syllable is
unstressed if it contains shwa( fallow, borrow). Two syllable adjectives are
stressed (correct, lovely). Exceptions – honest, perfect. Nouns - if the second
syllable contains a short V the stress on the first or otherwise( money,
product). Adverbs and preposition like verbs and adjectives. In verbs if the
last syllable contains a long V final syllable unstressed, stress on the
preceding syllable(encounter). Final syllable long V – final syllable
stressed(entertain). Final syllable short vowel or shwa –unstressed. If The
syllable preceding this final contains a
long V, middle syllable stressed(disaster, potato) Final and middle syllable with short V unstressed, the first
stressed (cinema, intellect) Kinds of suffix – stress carrying suffixes,
neutral, stress moving.( employ – employee, wonder – wonderful)
3.
Phonetic as a science. The phoneme and the
allophone .
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the
sounds of human speech, or—in the case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects
of sign. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs
(phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory
perception, and neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other hand, is
concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds
or signs.
Ph.- the science of speech sounds and the art of pronunciation. 1)
General phonetic studies the patterns of the different language of the world,
and is the basis for the phonetic analysis of any particular language. Aspects of phonetic: 1) anatomical and physiological
(articulation)-which organs are involved in the pronoun of speech 2) the nature or acoustic -
considering sound as vibration in the air and captures his physical char-s:
frequency (частоти) (high), strength (amplitude), duration. 3) functional aspect (phonological) study
function of sounds in lang. 4)actions and movement of speech
organs(articulatory)
In any language we can identify a small number of regularly used sounds
(V and C) that we call – phonemes. Phonemes
– an abstract set of units, as the basis of our speech (44). Allophones – different realizations of
phonemes (a lot of them). The difference between them – their position in
various phonetic contexts.
4.
Intonation and it`s functions
Intonation is the variation of pitch when smd speaking. Intonation is a
part of suprasegmental phonology. Intonation bases on several key components: pitch,
sentence stress, rhythm.
Pitch is the degree of height of our voice in speech. Sentence stress makes the utterance
understandable to the listener by making the important words in the sentence
stressed, clear and higher in pitch and by shortening and obscuring the
unstressed words. Functions - Attitudinal - allow us to express emotions: finality,
confidence, interest, surprise, doubt, joy, pain, irony, etc. Accentual : When
it is said that intonation has accentual function, it implies that the
placement if stress is somewhat determined by intonation. Grammatical : The listener is better able to recognize the
grammar and syntax structure of what is being said by using the information
contained in the intonation. For example such things as: A- The placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses and sentences. B- The difference between
questions and statements. Main types of English intonation: 1) Falling
2) Rising. Other main types
of intonation include: high fall, low fall, fall-rise, high rise, midlevel
rise, low rise. Falling intonation is used on the last stressed syllable of the
sentence in: 1) Statements
(declarative sentence) розповідні We live in Moscow2) Special
questions: Where do you LIVE? 3 Commands (imperative sentences): STOP it. Sit DOWN.
4) Exclamatory sentences: What a
wonderful surPRISE! 5) The last part of
alternative questions (after “or”): Do you want /TEA or\COFfee? 6) Tag questions (When we the speaker is sure
that the answer will be “yes”): You \LIVE here, \DON”T you? (The speaker is
sure and expects the answer “yes”). Rising
intonation is used in: 1) General
questions: Was she glad to /SEE him? 2) Dependent
or introductory parts of sentences: If he /CALLS, ask him to \COME. 3) The first part of alternative questions
(before “or”): Would you like an /Apple or a \PEAR? 4) Direct address: /SIR, you dropped your \NOTEbook. 5) Enumerating items in a list: She bought /
bread, /cheese and to\MAtoes. 6) Tag questions (When we the speaker in not
sure that the answer will be “yes” or wants your opinion): It’s a beautiful
\TOWN, /ISN”T it? (The speaker thinks that the town is beautiful but asks for
your opinion and confirmation). Functions
of intonation – constitutive (установчий) – each sentence consists of many intonation groups,
distinctive(відмінний) – distinguish the communicative types of sentence
5.
General characteristic of the English
phonemes classification.
Phoneme - the object of study of
phonology. An abstract set of units as basis on speech. Phoneme (Greek -
"sound") - the minimum unit of the sound structure of language.
Phoneme has no independent lexical or grammatical meaning, but is useful for
distinguishing and identifying meaningful units of language (morphemes and
words): - the replacement of one
phoneme to another get a different word (ten-pen); - when you change the order of phonemes also get a different
word (pit-tip); - deleting phonemes
also get a different word (p<l>ay- pay). In most English accents there
are about 24 consonantal phonemes and 20
vowel phonemes in the language, but only 26 letters. The difference between
them – their position in various phonetic contexts.
6.
The English vowel system
Vowel - are speech sounds
produced without obstruction the flow of air from the lungs, so that the breath
stream passes freely through the mouth. Vowels are always voiced. There are 6 V in English alphabet: a ,e, i, o,
u, y. All vowel sounds are called vowel system. Vowel sounds are divided into:
1)
stability of articulation: monophthongs – articulation is unchanging: [i], [e], [æ], [u), [o:], [o], [a:], [з:], [ә], (л) diphthongs (the organs of speech glide from one V
position to another): [ei] [ai] [ oi] [au] [зu] [i ә ] [зә] [u ә ] triphthongs
– gliding from one vowel to another and then to a third without interruption:
[ei ә] [ai ә] [ oi
ә] [ә u ә] [au ә ], diphthongoids – the articulation is not changing
– i: u:
2) tongue position: front i:, I, e, æ. central - ^, з:, ә. Back - a:, o, o:, u: u. CLOSE [i:] [u:] i, u. OPEN
[ o] æ ] [a:] [o:] , MID [e] [з:]
[^] [ә]
3) lip position:
rounded
(o ), (o:) u:, u . unrounded - neutral
(i:, i, e, æ , a:, ^, з:, ә)
4) character of V end: checked – stressed V fallowed by strong voiceless C
it is cut off by it, free – V fallowed by a weak voiced C.
7.
Organs of speech(active, passive)
Organs of
speech: glottis – голосова
щілина, pharynx - глотка, uvula - язичок, soft palate, hard palate, alveolar ridge, lips,
teeth, tongue (tip, blade, front, back)б vocal cords, larynx - гортань, nasal
cavities - порожнини, epiglottis - надгортанники, esophagus - стравохід,
trachea. The vibration of the vocal cords – voiced., no vibration – voiceless –глухі.
Active - 1) Vocal cords
(produce voice) 2) Tongue (the most
flexible and movable organ) 3) Lips
4) Soft palate with the uvula
(directing the stream of air either to the mouth or to the nasal cavity) 5) Back wall of the pharynx 6 Lower jaw
(controls the gap between the teeth and lips) 7) Lungs (providing air for sounds)
Passive: 1) Teeth 2) Teeth ridge 3) Hard palate 4) Walls
of the resonators
8.
The articulation basis of English.
In articulatory phonetics, the
manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators
(speech organs such as the tongue, lips, and palate) when making a speech
sound. One parameter of manner is stricture, that is, how closely the speech
organs approach one another. Others include those involved in the r-like sounds
(taps and trills), and the sibilance of fricatives. The concept of
manner is mainly used in
discussion of consonants, although the movement of the articulators will also
greatly alter the resonant properties of the vocal tract, thereby changing the
formant structure of speech sounds that is crucial for the identification of
vowels. For consonants, the place of articulation and the degree of phonation
of voicing are considered separately from manner, as being independent
parameters. Homorganic consonants, which have the same place of articulation,
may have different manner of articulation. Often nasality and laterality are included
in manner. speech sounds may be
classified along a cline as stop consonants (with occlusion, or blocked
airflow), fricative consonants (with partially blocked and therefore strongly
turbulent airflow), approximants (with only slight turbulence), and vowels
(with full unimpeded airflow). Affricates often behave as if they were
intermediate between stops and fricatives, but phonetically they are sequences
of stop plus fricative. Historically, sounds may move along this cline toward
less stricture in a process called lenition. The reverse process is fruition. Nasal
airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound. It is
most commonly found in nasal occlusive and nasal vowels, but nasalized
fricatives, taps, and approximants are also found. When a sound is not nasal,
it is called oral. Laterality is the release of airflow at the side of the
tongue. This can also be combined with other manners, resulting in lateral
approximants (the most common), lateral flaps, and lateral fricatives and
affricates.
9.
Intonation and the segments of the
intonation groups
The intonation patterns that contain a number of syllables consist of
parts: pre-head, head,
nucleus, tail. Pre head consist of the syllables beginning with the
first stressed syllable up to the last stressed syllable. The last stressed
syllable is called nucleus. The unstressed and half stressed syllables that
follow the nucleus are called the tail. Stressed elements – nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, participle, infinitive, gerund, demonstrative pronoun,
auxiliary and modal verbs in negative forms
10.
The sentence stress
Like word stress is accent on one
syllable within a word then sentence stress is accent on certain words within a
sentence. Most sentences have two types of word:
1) Content (words are the key words of a sentence. They are the
important words that carry the meaning or sense). [nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verb,
auxiliaries] 2) Structure (words are
not very important words. They are small, simple words that make the sentence
correct grammatically. They give the sentence its correct form or "structure").
[pronouns, prepositions(on,at), articles, conjunction (and,but,), auxiliary
(do,be,have,can)] The unstressed and
half stressed syllables that follow the nucleus are called the tail. Stressed
elements – nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, participle, infinitive, gerund,
demonstrative pronoun, auxiliary and modal verbs in negative forms
11.
Assimilation and ways of analysis it.
Assimilation is a process of
alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sound becomes fully
or partially similar to the enjoying sound. Modification of C under the
influence of a neighboring C.
Types of assimilation can be
distinguished according to:
1) Direction – regressive , progressive, reciprocal
2) Degree of completeness – partial, total(complete incomplete)
3) Degree of stability
1)
Progressive (the C changes
because of the influence of the preceding C ) ex: pens - penz
Regressive ( the sound changes
due to the influence of the following sound) ex: ten mice, ten bikes width)
Reciprocal or double - зрощення (the first C and the
second in a clauster fuse and mutually condition the creation of a third C with
features from both) ex: tree
2) Complete (in case the 2 adjoining sounds become alike or
merge) ex: les[s s]hy, cupboard – p+b=b , Incomplete (the likeness of the
adjoining sound is partial) ex: (the sonorant – w, l, r are partly devoiced by
the voiceless p,t,k,s,f,th) sweet, place, try.
3) Historical word (such changes which have taken place over a
period of time) ex: orchard
12.
Variation in a sentence stress(logical,
accidental rise)
Types of sentence stress.
1.Normal (is used to arrange the sentence phonetically, to single a nuclear of
the center of the utterance – I want a blue dress) 2.Logical (when the symantic centre is shifted from the last notional
word to soma other word than it’s a logical stress – the weather is nice
today)3. Emphatic (stress may differ according to the degree of prominence with
which the semantic sentence is pronounced, emph stress is associated with fall
rise and mid and high fall – the weather is nice today). Functions: 1. Constitutive. SS organizes intonation patterns
semantically and syntactically. It also helps to single out the communicative
center and other important items of the utterance. Nominal words are usually
accented, and form words are usually unstressed. Although form words may be accented or
stressed in certain structural types of sentences, in certain positions in a
sentence they may be emphasized logically. 2. The distinctive function of SS. Intonation
patterns differ primarily in respect to the position of the nucleus of the
communicative center. The opposition of the intonation patterns is capable of
fulfilling: → the syntactically distinctive function - the number of
communicative centers indicates the number of intonation groups. In this case
the opposition of intonation (accentuation) patterns fulfills this function. → the semantically distinctive function – is
realized in the opposition of different accentuation patterns → the
attitudinally distinctive function – may be demonstrated by changing the
accentuation pattern of the sentence. →
together with pitch accent (SS) also fulfills the function of dividing a
sentence into theme and rhyme.
13.
Partial assimilation affecting the place of
articulation.
Assimilation involves a change in the place of articulation to make a
sound more similar to a neighboring sound. It is an extremely common phenomena
in English, mainly affecting alveolar consonants. Assimilated sounds retains
it`s major articulatory feature. Sonorants w,l,r are partialy devoiced when
preceded by voiceless fortis p,t,k,s, f,O – sweet, place, try.
14.
Vowel reduction
Reduction is a historical process
of weakening, shortening or disappearance of vowel sounds in unstressed
positions. Types of reduction – quantitative (shortening of a vowel sound in
unstressed position), qualitative (obscuration of vowels towards e,I,u, affects
both long and short vowels – can), elision (I`m up already)
15.
Partial assimilation affecting the work of
the vocal cords.
- The sonorants are partially devoiced when preceded by
voiceless consonants (s,p,t,k,f,O, ch)(place, climb,small). At word boundaries
the sonorant (r,l,w) are slightly voiced (at last, at rest). - Contracted forms
of the verbs “is” and “has” may retain voice be devoiced depending on the
preceding sonorants (That’s right. Bob’s
gone out.) – suffix `s, s` pronounced as z after voiced and V sound – girl ,
girlz, room, roomz. Suffix –ed, d after voicrd C livd, t after voicelles wekt..
Regressive voicing or devoicing -
faifpens, faiv, Ihafto, have.
16.
Communicative types of a sentence(rise,
falling)
Rise,fall, fall –rise, rise-fall,
level. Falling intonation is used on the last stressed syllable of the sentence
in: 1) Statements (declarative
sentence) розповідні We live in Moscow2) Special
questions: Where do you LIVE? 3 Commands (imperative sentences): STOP it. Sit
DOWN. 4) Exclamatory sentences: What a
wonderful surPRISE! 5) The last part
of alternative questions (after “or”): Do you want /TEA or\COFfee? 6) Tag questions (When we the speaker is
sure that the answer will be “yes”): You \LIVE here, \DON”T you? (The speaker
is sure and expects the answer “yes”). Rising intonation is used in: 1) General questions: Was she glad to /SEE him?
2) Dependent or introductory parts of
sentences: If he /CALLS, ask him to \COME. 3) The
first part of alternative questions (before “or”): Would you like an /Apple or
a \PEAR? 4) Direct address: /SIR, you
dropped your \NOTEbook. 5) Enumerating
items in a list: She bought / bread, /cheese and to\MAtoes. 6) Tag
questions (When we the speaker in not sure that the answer will be “yes” or
wants your opinion): It’s a beautiful \TOWN, /ISN”T it? (The speaker thinks
that the town is beautiful but asks for your opinion and confirmation).
17.
Partial assimilation affecting the lip
position.
Consonants followed by the sonorant /w/ change their lip-position. They
become lip-rounded in anticipation /w/ - twinkle, swan.
18.
The English phonemes
Phoneme - the object of study of phonology. An abstract set of units as
basis on speech.
Phoneme (Greek - "sound") - the minimum unit of the sound
structure of language. Phoneme has no independent lexical or grammatical
meaning, but is useful for distinguishing and identifying meaningful units of
language (morphemes and words):
- the replacement of one phoneme to
another get a different word (ten-pen);
- when you change the order of
phonemes also get a different word (pit-tip);
- deleting phonemes also get a
different word (p<l>ay- pay).
In most English accents there are about 24 consonantal phonemes and 20 vowel phonemes in the language, but
only 26 letters. The difference between them – their position in various
phonetic contexts.
19.
The vowels and the consonants
Vowels are voiced sounds without any obstruction. Consonants noise producing obstruction
formed in glottal cavities.
20.
The English consonant system
Consonants – are made with air
stream that meet an obstruction in the mouth or nasal cavities. On the
articulatory level the C change – in the degree of noise, in the manner of
articulation, in the place of articulation. the degree of noise: noise C
and sonorants. According to the vocal cords -
Voiced and weak (lenis): b, d, g, v, z міжзубна, z, g(z), dз, Voiceless and
strong (fortis): p, t, k, f, O міжзубна, s, ch, tч, h.
sonorants (tone prevailing over noise) – m,n,n носовий,w, l, r, j. Manner of articulation - 1)Occlusive
(stop) plosives – the air stream meets a complete obstruction in mouth: p, b,
t, d, k, g 2)Constrictive (fricatives) – the air stream meets an incomplete
obstruction in the resonator: f, v, O, z міжзубна, s, z, ch, з, h 3)Occlusive
constrictive (affricates) – a complete obstruction which is slowly released and
air escapes from mouth with friction: tch, dз. 4)Rolled – periodical momentary
obstructions when the tip of the tongue taps quickly several times against the
teeth ridge. Place of articulation - According to the position of the active
organ of speech: labial, lingual, glottal.
Occlusive – m,n,n, constrictive – w,l,r,j. Labial: - bilabial
(p,b,m,w); -labio-dental (f, v), Lingual:
- forelingual:
apical – t,d,s,z, ch, з, O, з міжзубна, dз, tch,n,l, dorsal, cacuminal – r. Place of obstruction –
interdental O,z, dental, alveolar t,d,n,l, post alveolar r, palato alveolar
tch,dз,ch,з. – medialingual –
palatal j, - backlingual – velar k,g,n long, Glottal (h).
21.
The phonemic and allophonic transcription
A broad transcription uses only one symbol for
all allophones of the same phoneme. This is enough information to distinguish a
word from other words of the language. What details you have to include in a
broad transcription will depend on what language or dialect you are transcribing.
In any language we can identify a small number of regularly used sounds (V and
C) that we call – phonemes. Phonemes – an abstract set of units, as the basis
of our speech (44). Allophones – different realizations of phonemes (a lot of
them). The difference between them – their position in various phonetic
contexts.
22.
The syllable(syllable division Peter Roach)
Syllable is a speech unit consisting of a sound or a sound sequence one
of which is heard to be more prominent then the other. Syllable – is a unit of
organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example word ‘water’ is
composed of 2 syllables. [wa-ter] The general structure of a syllable consist
of 3 segments: onset, nucleus, coda. Nucleus
– which is the “core” of the syllable (made up of a syllabic C or it is a V) Onset – which is made up of all of the
consonants before the nucleus. Coda - the everything after nucleus. Ex
– desk – d onset, e nucleus, sk coda. There are open and closed syllables. Types of English syllables –
V, V+C, V+C+C, V+C+C+C, C+V, C+V+C, C+V+C+C,C+V+C+C+C………..
23.
The Syntagma
Syntagma - is a elementary
segment within a text. Such a segment can be a phonema, a word, a grammatical
phrase or a sentence. Syntagma -
intonation and unity of meaning, which express in this context and in this
situation and concepts and may consist of one word, group of word and the whole
sentence. Syntagmatic analysis
involves the study of relationships (rules of combination) among syntagmas. At
the lexical level, syntagmatic structure in a language is the combination of
words according to the rules of syntax for that language. For example English
uses determiner + adjective + noun, e.g. the big house. Another language might
use determiner + noun + adjective (Spanish la casa grande) and therefore have a
different syntagmatic structure. At a higher level, narrative structures
feature a realistic temporal flow guided by tension and relaxation; thus, for
example, events or rhetorical figures may be treated as syntagmas of epic
structures. Syntagmatic structure is often contrasted with paradigmatic
structure. In semiotics, "syntagmatic analysis" is analysis of syntax
or surface structure (syntagmatic structure), rather than paradigms as in
paradigmatic analysis.
24.
Assimilation nasal and lateral plosions
When a plosive is followed by
syllabic n or m it has no release – nasal plosion – happen, button. If plosive
followed by L the clousure produced for the plosive is not released after L,
before L – lateral plosion. L clear – the front of the tongue raised, will
never occur before C, but only before V - lea, L dark – the back of the tongue raised,
never occurs before V - eel
25.
Strong and weak syllables
Four types of peak( weak
syllables) – shwa, I and i:, u, u:, syllabic C.
The most important thing to note
at present is that any strong syllable will have as its peak one of the vowel
phonemes (or possibly a triphthong) Weak syllables, At the end of a word, we
may have a weak syllable ending with a vowel (i.e. with no coda): i) the vowel
,1 ("schwa"); ii) a close front unrounded vowel in the general area
of i:, 1, symbolised i; iii) a close back rounded vowel in the general area of
u:, o, symbolised u. Examples would be: i) 'better' beta The most frequently
occurring vowel in English is ,i, which is always associated with weak
syllables. In quality it is mid (i.e. halfway between close and open) and
central (i.e. halfway between front and back). Not all weak syllables contain
,i, though many do.
In the rest of this chapter we
will look at the different types of weak syllable in more detail. Weak
syllables with close back rounded vowels are not so commonly found. We find u
most frequently in the words 'you', 'to', 'into', 'do', when they are
unstressed and are not immediately preceding a consonant, and 'through', 'who'
in all positions when they are unstressed.
26.
The use of terminal tones(rise, fall)
The change of the pitch that take
place in the nucleus are called nuclear tones. The nuclear syllable is the most
prominent one in to intonation pattern. The nucleus and the tail from the
terminal tone. The most significant part in the intonation group.
27.
Logical stress
a means of emphasizing a
meaningful unit of an utterance. Superimposed on the obligatory word stress,
logical stress usually intensifies the phonetic features of a word, emphasizing
information that is new or disputable for one of the interlocutors. For example,
in the phrase “Your sister came” logical stress may emphasize any one of the
three words. The same may be achieved graphically (italics, etc.), lexically
(“none other than,” “just now”), or syntactically (by word order and emphatic
constructions). Logical stress is one of the methods of actual division of a
sentence. If the nucleus is shifted from the last notional word to some other
word of the intonation-group the sentence stress is called logical.
28.
Complex word stress
At first I have to say that there
are 2 kinds of words in english:
1- simple words
2- complex words
Simple words are not
composed of more than one grammatical unit.e.g: CARE
Complex words are composed
of two or more grammatical units.e.g: CAREFUL,CAREFULLY Complex words are of 2 major types:
A. words made from a basic word
form,with the addition of an affix
B. compound words which are made
of 2 or more independent English words e.g ARMCHAIR A)The affix itself receives
the primary stress.e.g. PERSON+ALITY=PERSONALITY B)The word is stressed as if
the affix were not there.e.g. PLEASANT & UNPLEASANT C)The stress remains on
the stem,not the suffix,but is shifted to a different syllable.e.g.MAGNET &
MAGNETIC
